Administration & Society
Administration of Justice
When judgements were given in biblical times, this was done by judges
There was no public prosecutor as in our legal system. The victim in a legal case had to represent himself as the plaintiff. He stood next to the accused in the court.
Administration of Justice in the New Testament
Judea was part of the Roman Empire and so was subject to Roman jurisdiction. But there was also a Jewish, religious court which pronounced rulings on internal Jewish matters: the Sanhedrin
The two best-known people from the New Testament that had dealings with Roman laws were Jesus and Paul.
Administration of Justice in the Old Testament
The Old Testament contains many stories and texts about judges and the administration of justice. God is the supreme judge, and his laws are implemented by the leaders of Israel.
Adultery
Adultery was a serious crime in the world of the Bible. It was punishable by death
Agrippa
King Agrippa II is the son of Herod Agrippa I and a great-grandchild of Herod the Great. He reigned from AD 48 to around 93.
Akkadian
Akkadian is an East-Semitic language. Actually, this is a collective term for Babylonian (the language of the Babylonians) and Assyrian (the language of the Assyrians). Babylonian and Assyrian were written in cuneiform, borrowed from the Sumerians. Cuneiform underwent a development as a result of this.
Alphabet
Around 1500 BC the nations of the ancient Near East began to use a new form of writing: the alphabet. It was probably the Phoenicians who developed this form of writing. The alphabet consisted of 22 letters, each one indicating a particular consonant. Vowels were not represented in the writing. This type of writing is called “alphabet” after the first two letters of the Greek alphabet: alpha and beta.
Ancient Israelite Calendar
In some texts of the Old Testament the names of the months of the ancient Israelite calendar are used. We see the following names:
Antiochus IV
Antiochus IV Epiphanes was king of Syria in the second century BC. Judea fell under his rule as well. He plundered the Temple in Jerusalem.
Archelaus
Archelaus is one of the sons of Herod the Great
Augustus
Augustus was the first emperor of the Roman Empire. He was named Gaius Octavius when he was born, but as emperor he was given the name Augustus (the “exalted one”). He was emperor from 27 BC to AD 14.
Babylonian Calendar
In later Old Testament texts and in the Deuterocanonical books, we can find the names of the months from the Babylonian calendar. Since the Babylonian Era (sixth century BC), this calendar was also used by Israel.
Babylonian Exile
The first time the inhabitants of Judah were taken off into captivity (see first deportation to Babylonia
Bul (Month)
Bul is the eighth month of the ancient Israelite calendar
Calendar
In ancient times calendars were also used to divide up the year. In the Bible we find traces of different calendars.
Chasidim
The chasidim (also spelt “Hasidim”) were a group of pious Jews. They first appeared in the second century BC, but their origins are unclear. According to 1 Maccabees 2:42
Chislev (Month)
Chislev is the ninth month of the Babylonian calendar
Coins in the New Testament
In New Testament times, there were several different coins. Both the Greeks and the Romans had their own coins.
Coins in the Old Testament
In the Old Testament, we find the names of various coins, such as the shekel and the daric. There were other (local) coins, but these are not mentioned in the Bible.
Corporal Punishment
The Bible occasionally mentions corporal punishment. A possible punishment was a beating. If someone was beaten, according to Deuteronomy 25:1-3
According to Roman law, Roman citizens could not be beaten without a trial. Paul invokes this right in Acts 16:37
Crucifixion
Jesus was crucified. Crucifixion was a common punishment in the Roman Empire.
Cuneiform
The name cuneiform literally means “wedge-shaped” and is derived from the shape of the marks that make up the various graphemes. It was written from left to right on clay tablets.
Currency
In Israel money was used from the sixth century onwards. Before that time, Israel had an exchange (or barter) economy.
Custodial Sentence
Prison, as a place for locking people up to serve a custodial sentence, was of lesser importance in the time of the Bible. Prison was usually a place where people were locked up temporarily until they were sentenced.
In the time of Moses, someone could be sentenced to exile as well. The convicted person would then be banished from the community.
Daric (Coin)
In around 520 BC, the Persian King Darius I (522-486 BC) introduced the daric. The daric weighed 8,4 gram, and was made of pure gold. The monetary value was equal to 20 silver shekels
Death Sentence
The most severe punishment that could be meted out was the death sentence.
Denarius
A denarius was about a day’s pay for a well-paid labourer. A denarius was worth the same as one drachma.
Deposit
If someone lent something out, he could ask for a deposit for it. Then if a loan was not repaid, he could keep the deposit. People could also ask for interest
Emperor Claudius (AD 41-54)
Claudius is the fourth emperor of the Roman Empire. He reigned from AD 41 to 54.
Essenes and Qumran
The Jewish writers Flavius Josephus
Essenes and the New Testament
Some concepts in the New Testament play an important part in Essene literature. But such agreements do not mean that the first Christians were Essenes. And Jesus’
Ethanim (Month)
Ethanim is the seventh month of the ancient Israelite calendar
Eunuch
A eunuch was a court attendant in the ancient Near East. Eunuchs were generally castrated.
Exile
The inhabitants of Judah and Israel were taken off into captivity several times. They were taken off to other countries as exiles by various peoples. This was a way for a dominant power to ensure that a country was disrupted and would not find it easy to rebel.
Fines
When someone committed a crime, the punishment could consist of a fine or compensation. This fine was paid to (a member of the family of) the victim.
First Deportation to Babylonia
The population of Judah was transported to Babylonia for the first time in the seventh century BC.
Foreigner: Metaphor
In the Bible, being a foreigner or stranger is used as a metaphor for a certain type of religious awareness, that is, the idea that life on earth is only a short stay. The believer is on earth as a stranger in a strange land, on his way to his heavenly home.
Foreigners and Strangers
There were foreigners in all societies of the ancient Near East. The number of foreigners grew in the Graeco-Roman period (from the fourth century BC onwards) because it became easier for people to travel. And many different population groups were represented throughout the major cities around the Mediterranean Sea.
Freed Slaves
In New Testament times, masters had the right to free their slaves. This could be done formally or informally, during the master’s lifetime or in his will. Slaves were often freed after working for their master for a number of decades.
Gezer Calendar
In 1908, during excavations in Gezer, a limestone tablet was found with what is probably a calendar on it. The tablet is about 12 by 7 centimetres in size and dates to the tenth century BC. The text is written in ancient Hebrew
Governance of the Roman Empire
In New Testament times Israel was under Roman governance. The land was part of the province that the Romans called Palestine. This was the whole area of the east coast of the Mediterranean, including large parts of Syria and Jordan.
Greek Coinage
Besides the talent and the drachma, there were more Greek coins. These were the mina (or mna), stater, obol, chalkos and lepton. They are not often mentioned by name in Bible translations, because their exact value is not so important in the text.
Harem
Ancient oriental sovereigns in the Bible sometimes have many wives who live in special quarters for wives, a harem.
